{"id":10128,"date":"2023-05-01T09:30:09","date_gmt":"2023-05-01T09:30:09","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.scmgalaxy.com\/tutorials\/?p=10128"},"modified":"2023-06-19T13:29:57","modified_gmt":"2023-06-19T13:29:57","slug":"top-50-kotlin-interview-questions-with-answers","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.scmgalaxy.com\/tutorials\/top-50-kotlin-interview-questions-with-answers\/","title":{"rendered":"Top 50 Kotlin Interview Questions with Answers"},"content":{"rendered":"<div class=\"wp-block-image\">\n<figure class=\"aligncenter size-full is-resized\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.scmgalaxy.com\/tutorials\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/image-11.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-10129\" width=\"720\" height=\"360\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.scmgalaxy.com\/tutorials\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/image-11.png 800w, https:\/\/www.scmgalaxy.com\/tutorials\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/image-11-300x150.png 300w, https:\/\/www.scmgalaxy.com\/tutorials\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/05\/image-11-768x384.png 768w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 720px) 100vw, 720px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\"><strong><em>Kotlin Interview Questions with Answers<\/em><\/strong><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">1. What is Kotlin?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. An object-oriented programming language<br>b. A markup language<br>c. A database management system<br>d. A server-side framework<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: a. An object-oriented programming language<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">2. Which company developed Kotlin?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. Google<br>b. JetBrains<br>c. Oracle<br>d. IBM<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: b. JetBrains<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">3. Which platform does Kotlin target?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. iOS<br>b. Android<br>c. Windows<br>d. macOS<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: b. Android<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">4. What is null safety in Kotlin?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. A feature that prevents NullPointerExceptions<br>b. A feature that allows only null values<br>c. A feature that enables dynamic typing<br>d. A feature that ensures thread safety<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: a. A feature that prevents NullPointerExceptions<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">5. What is the default visibility of a class declared in Kotlin?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. Private<br>b. Public<br>c. Protected<br>d. Internal<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: d. Internal<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">6. What are the different types of constructors available in Kotlin?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. Default constructor and secondary constructor<br>b. Primary constructor and inner constructor<br>c. Protected constructor and public constructor<br>d. Parent constructor and child constructor<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: a. Default constructor and secondary constructor<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">7. Which keyword is used to create a singleton class in Kotlin?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. object<br>b. class<br>c. singleton<br>d. static<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: a. object<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">8. What is the use of a companion object in Kotlin?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. To create a static method or variable<br>b. To create an instance of a class<br>c. To define a constructor<br>d. To declare a null object<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: a. To create a static method or variable<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">9. Which of the following is not a basic data type in Kotlin?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. boolean<br>b. byte<br>c. char<br>d. float<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: d. float<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">10. Which keyword is used to create an abstract class in Kotlin?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. abstract<br>b. class<br>c. abstracted<br>d. abc<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: a. abstract<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">11. What is the use of the operator keyword in Kotlin?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. To overload an operator<br>b. To specify an algorithm<br>c. To define a function<br>d. To declare a variable<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: a. To overload an operator<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">12. What is the use of the lateinit keyword in Kotlin?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. To declare a variable that will be initialized later<br>b. To declare a constant<br>c. To declare a nullable variable<br>d. To declare a final variable<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: a. To declare a variable that will be initialized later<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">13. Which keyword is used to declare a variable that cannot be reassigned?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. val<br>b. var<br>c. const<br>d. final<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: a. val<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">14. What is the use of the safe call operator in Kotlin?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. To avoid NullPointerExceptions<br>b. To access a variable<br>c. To define a function<br>d. To declare a class<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: a. To avoid NullPointerExceptions<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">15. Which function is used in Kotlin to convert a string to an integer?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. toInt()<br>b. parseInt()<br>c. fromString()<br>d. convertInt()<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: a. toInt()<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">16. What is the use of the when expression in Kotlin?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. To replace if-else statements<br>b. To declare a variable<br>c. To define a function<br>d. To access a class<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: a. To replace if-else statements<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">17. What is the use of the assert() function in Kotlin?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. To check a condition and terminate the program if it is false<br>b. To print the value of a variable<br>c. To define a function<br>d. To declare a class<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: a. To check a condition and terminate the program if it is false<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">18. Which keyword is used to declare a function that doesn&#8217;t return any value?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. void<br>b. Unit<br>c. fun<br>d. none<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: b. Unit<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">19. What is the use of the apply() function in Kotlin?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. To initialize an object<br>b. To execute a block of code with a nullable variable<br>c. To inherit a class<br>d. To declare a constant<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: a. To initialize an object<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">20. What is the use of the with() function in Kotlin?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. To execute a block of code with a nullable variable<br>b. To access a class<br>c. To declare a function<br>d. To define a constructor<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: a. To execute a block of code with a nullable variable<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">21. Which operator is used for safe navigation in Kotlin?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. ?<br>b. !!<br>c. ?:<br>d. ?.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: d. ?.<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">22. What is the use of the lazy() function in Kotlin?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. To initialize a variable only when it is used for the first time<br>b. To declare a final variable<br>c. To declare a nullable variable<br>d. To define a function<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: a. To initialize a variable only when it is used for the first time<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">23. What is the use of the take() function in Kotlin?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. To return a specified number of elements from a collection<br>b. To remove a specified number of elements from a collection<br>c. To sort a collection<br>d. To map a collection to a new collection<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: a. To return a specified number of elements from a collection<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">24. Which function is used to create a list in Kotlin?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. arrayListOf()<br>b. listOf()<br>c. mutableListOf()<br>d. setOf()<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: b. listOf()<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">25. What is the use of the until keyword in Kotlin?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. To specify a range of numbers<br>b. To access a class<br>c. To define a constructor<br>d. To declare a function<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: a. To specify a range of numbers<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">26. What is the use of the ?: operator in Kotlin?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. To execute a block of code with a nullable variable<br>b. To access a class<br>c. To declare a function<br>d. To provide a default value for a nullable variable<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: d. To provide a default value for a nullable variable<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">27. What is the use of the ?.let() function in Kotlin?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. To execute a block of code with a nullable variable<br>b. To provide a default value for a nullable variable<br>c. To map a collection to a new collection<br>d. To sort a collection<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: a. To execute a block of code with a nullable variable<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">28. Which function is used to create a set in Kotlin?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. setOf()<br>b. mutableSetOf()<br>c. hashSetOf()<br>d. all of the above<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: d. all of the above<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">29. What is the use of the filter() function in Kotlin?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. To return a new collection that contains all elements matching a given condition<br>b. To return a new collection that contains only the non-null elements of the original collection<br>c. To sort a collection<br>d. To map a collection to a new collection<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: a. To return a new collection that contains all elements matching a given condition<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">30. What is the use of the reduce() function in Kotlin?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. To return a new collection that contains all elements matching a given condition<br>b. To return a new collection that contains only the non-null elements of the original collection<br>c. To combine the elements of a collection into a single value<br>d. To map a collection to a new collection<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: c. To combine the elements of a collection into a single value<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">31. What is the use of the fold() function in Kotlin?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. To return a new collection that contains all elements matching a given condition<br>b. To return a new collection that contains only the non-null elements of the original collection<br>c. To combine the elements of a collection into a single value<br>d. To map a collection to a new collection<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: c. To combine the elements of a collection into a single value<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">32. What is the use of the distinct() function in Kotlin?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. To return a new collection that contains only the unique elements of the original collection<br>b. To return a new collection that contains all elements matching a given condition<br>c. To combine the elements of a collection into a single value<br>d. To sort a collection<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: a. To return a new collection that contains only the unique elements of the original collection<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">33. What is the use of the groupBy() function in Kotlin?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. To return a map of elements grouped by a given key<br>b. To return a new collection that contains all elements matching a given condition<br>c. To combine the elements of a collection into a single value<br>d. To sort a collection<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: a. To return a map of elements grouped by a given key<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">34. Which function is used to create a map in Kotlin?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. mapOf()<br>b. hashMapOf()<br>c. mutableMapOf()<br>d. all of the above<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: d. all of the above<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">35. What is the use of the to() function in Kotlin?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. To declare a variable<br>b. To define a function<br>c. To create a pair of values<br>d. To access a class<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: c. To create a pair of values<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">36. What is the use of the mutableListOf() function in Kotlin?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. To create an immutable list<br>b. To create a mutable list<br>c. To create a set<br>d. To create a map<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: b. To create a mutable list<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">37. What is the use of the sorted() function in Kotlin?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. To sort a collection in natural order<br>b. To sort a collection in reverse order<br>c. To shuffle a collection<br>d. To filter a collection<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: a. To sort a collection in natural order<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">38. What is the use of the reversed() function in Kotlin?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. To sort a collection in natural order<br>b. To sort a collection in reverse order<br>c. To shuffle a collection<br>d. To filter a collection<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: b. To sort a collection in reverse order<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">39. What is the use of the shuffle() function in Kotlin?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. To sort a collection in natural order<br>b. To sort a collection in reverse order<br>c. To shuffle a collection<br>d. To filter a collection<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: c. To shuffle a collection<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">40. What is the use of the takeWhile() function in Kotlin?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. To return a new collection that contains all elements matching a given condition<br>b. To return a new collection that contains only the non-null elements of the original collection<br>c. To return a new collection that contains elements until a given condition is no longer met<br>d. To map a collection to a new collection<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: c. To return a new collection that contains elements until a given condition is no longer met<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">41. What is the use of the joinToString() function in Kotlin?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. To convert a collection to a string<br>b. To filter a collection<br>c. To sort a collection<br>d. To map a collection to a new collection<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: a. To convert a collection to a string<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">42. What is the use of the let() function in Kotlin?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. To execute a block of code with a nullable variable<br>b. To provide a default value for a nullable variable<br>c. To define a function<br>d. To access a class<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: a. To execute a block of code with a nullable variable<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">43. What is the use of the forEach() function in Kotlin?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. To loop through a collection and perform an action on each element<br>b. To return a new collection that contains all elements matching a given condition<br>c. To combine the elements of a collection into a single value<br>d. To declare a variable<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: a. To loop through a collection and perform an action on each element<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">44. What is the use of the mapNotNull() function in Kotlin?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. To return a new collection that contains only the non-null elements of the original collection<br>b. To return a new collection that contains all elements matching a given condition<br>c. To combine the elements of a collection into a single value<br>d. To map a collection to a new collection<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: a. To return a new collection that contains only the non-null elements of the original collection<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">45. What is the use of the zip() function in Kotlin?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. To combine two collections into a single list of pairs<br>b. To filter a collection<br>c. To sort a collection<br>d. To map a collection to a new collection<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: a. To combine two collections into a single list of pairs<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">46. What is the use of the flatMap() function in Kotlin?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. To map a collection to a new collection<br>b. To combine nested collections into a single collection<br>c. To sort a collection<br>d. To filter a collection<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: b. To combine nested collections into a single collection<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">47. What is the use of the distinctBy() function in Kotlin?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. To return a new collection that contains all elements matching a given condition<br>b. To return a new collection that contains only the unique elements of the original collection based on a key selector<br>c. To combine the elements of a collection into a single value<br>d. To sort a collection<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: b. To return a new collection that contains only the unique elements of the original collection based on a key selector<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">48. What is the use of the sortedBy() function in Kotlin?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. To sort a collection in natural order based on a key selector<br>b. To sort a collection in reverse order based on a key selector<br>c. To shuffle a collection based on a key selector<br>d. To filter a collection based on a key selector<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: a. To sort a collection in natural order based on a key selector<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">49. What is the use of the associateBy() function in Kotlin?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. To filter a collection based on a key selector<br>b. To sort a collection based on a key selector<br>c. To map a collection to a new collection with keys based on a key selector<br>d. To combine the elements of a collection into a single value based on a key selector<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: c. To map a collection to a new collection with keys based on a key selector<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">50. What is the use of the mapKeys() function in Kotlin?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a. To filter a collection based on a key selector<br>b. To sort a collection based on a key selector<br>c. To map a collection to a new collection with keys based on a key selector<br>d. To combine the elements of a collection into a single value based on a key selector<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Answer: c. To map a collection to a new collection with keys based on a key selector<\/h4>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>1. What is Kotlin? a. An object-oriented programming languageb. A markup languagec. A database management systemd. A server-side framework Answer: [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":33,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_joinchat":[],"footnotes":""},"categories":[1],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-10128","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-uncategorized"],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO plugin v28.4 - https:\/\/yoast.com\/product\/yoast-seo-wordpress\/ -->\n<title>Top 50 Kotlin Interview Questions with Answers - scmGalaxy<\/title>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scmgalaxy.com\/tutorials\/top-50-kotlin-interview-questions-with-answers\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"en_US\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"Top 50 Kotlin Interview Questions with Answers - scmGalaxy\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:description\" content=\"1. What is Kotlin? a. An object-oriented programming languageb. A markup languagec. A database management systemd. 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